These projects are expected to facilitate the treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders and to promote new breakthroughs in neuromorphic computing and artificial intelligence. BRAIN Initiative, Europe’s Human Brain Project, and China’s Brain Project. Under this light, brain initiatives have been announced to build brain-wide atlases to unravel the neuronal connectivity and neural circuits, including the U.S. It is of uttermost importance to accurately locate and identify the neural morphologies at the scale of the entire brain. The neuron circuits and connectivity provide scientific evidence and basis to understand the emotional and memorial activities and the brain diseases. The function of a neuron both dictates and is constrained by its morphology and connection with other neurons. Among those the shapes of neurons play a fundamental role. To understand the brain structures is one of the primary targets of modern science.
In this light, we review the important computational techniques that can support smart systems in brain-wide imaging at single-cell resolution.
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The advances in artificial intelligence (AI) and computational resources bring great opportunity to ‘smart’ imaging systems, i.e., to automate, speed up, optimize and upgrade the imaging systems with AI and computational strategies. Nonetheless, high-throughput systems are in urgent demand to support studies of neural morphologies at larger scale and more detailed level, as well as to enable research on non-human primates (NHP) and human brains. Brain-wide imaging with single-cell resolution provides unique advantages to access morphological features of a neuron and to investigate the connectivity of neuron networks, which has led to exciting discoveries over the past years based on animal models, such as rodents. However, experimental controls demonstrated that this increase was related to heating.A deep understanding of the neuronal connectivity and networks with detailed cell typing across brain regions is necessary to unravel the mechanisms behind the emotional and memorial functions as well as to find the treatment of brain impairment. On the other hand, our data showed a slight increase, although insignificant, in neurite outgrowth, induced by MMW exposure. No differences were found in protein expression of the neuronal marker β3-tubulin nor in internal expression control β-tubulin. Using a large scale cell-by-cell analysis based on high-content screening microscopy approach, we assessed potential effects of MMW on PC12 neurite outgrowth and cytoskeleton protein expression. PC12 cells were exposed at 60.4 GHz for 24 h, at an incident power density averaged over the cell monolayer of 10 mW/cm 2. We used a neuron-like cell line (PC12), which undergoes neuronal differentiation when treated with the neuronal growth factor (NGF). Only a few studies assessed the impact of MMW on neuronal cells, and none of them investigated a possible effect on neuronal differentiation.
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At those frequencies, electromagnetic radiations have a very shallow penetration into biological tissues, making skin keratinocytes, and free nerve endings of the upper dermis the main targets of MMW. Forthcoming applications in this band, especially around 60 GHz, are mainly developed for high data-rate local and body-centric telecommunications. Technologies for wireless telecommunication systems using millimeter waves (MMW) will be widely deployed in the near future.
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